The term herbology is misleading in the sense that, while plant elements are by far the most commonly used substances, animal, human, and mineral products are also utilized. In the Huangdi Neijing they are referred to as 毒藥 [duyao] which means toxin, poison, or medicine. Unschuld points out that this is similar etymology to the Greek pharmakon and so he uses the term "pharmaceutic".[1] Thus, the term "medicinal" (instead of herb) is usually preferred as a translation for 药 (pinyin: yào).[2] There needs to be more research into the effectiveness of traditional Chinese herbal therapy. However, herbology is used in all cultures worldwide, including Western cultures, though no other culture seems to be subject to the scrutiny of Chinese herbal medicine. [3].[4] There are concerns over a number of potentially toxic Chinese herbs - though it's well-known that Western medicine is often toxic and harmful as well.[5] History   Chinese pharmacopoeia Chinese herbs have been used for many centuries. Among the earliest literature are lists of prescriptions for specific ailments, exemplified by the manuscript "Recipes for 52 Ailments", found in the Mawangdui which were sealed in 168 BC. The first traditionally-recognized herbalist is Shénnóng (神农, lit. "Divine Farmer"), a mythical figure, who is said to have lived around 2800 BC.[6] He tasted hundreds of herbs and imparted his knowledge of medicinal plants to farmers. His Shénnóng Běn Cǎo Jīng (神农本草经, Shennong's Materia Medica) is considered as the oldest book on Chinese herbal medicine. It classifies 365 species of roots, grass, woods, furs, animals and stones into three categories of herbal medicine:[7] The "Superior" category includes herbs effective for multiple diseases and are mostly responsible for maintaining and restoring the body balance. They have almost no unfavorable side effects.[7] A category comprising tonics and boosters, whose consumption must not be prolonged.[7] A category of substances which must usually be taken in small doses, and for the treatment of specific diseases only.[7] The original text of Shennong's Materia Medica has been lost; however, there are extant translations.[8] The true date of origin is believed to fall into the late Western Han dynasty[6] (i.e., the first century BC). The Treatise on Cold Damage Disorders and Miscellaneous Illnesses was collated by Zhang Zhongjing, also sometime at the end of the Han dynasty, between 196 and 220 CE. Focusing on drug prescriptions,[9] it was the first medical work to combine Yinyang and the Five Phases with drug therapy.[10] This formulary was also the earliest Chinese medical text to group symptoms into clinically useful "patterns" (zheng 證) that could serve as targets for therapy. Having gone through numerous changes over time, it now circulates as two distinct books: the Treatise on Cold Damage Disorders and the Essential Prescriptions of the Golden Casket, which were edited separately in the eleventh century, under the Song dynasty.[11] Succeeding generations augmented these works, as in the Yaoxing Lun (simplified Chinese: 药性论; traditional Chinese: 藥性論; literally "Treatise on the Nature of Medicinal Herbs"), a 7th-century Tang dynasty Chinese treatise on herbal medicine. There was a shift in emphasis in treatment over several centuries. A section of the Neijing Suwen including Chapter 74 was added by Wang Bing [王冰 Wáng Bīng] in his 765 edition. In which it says: 主病之謂君，佐君之謂臣，應臣之謂使，非上下三品之謂也。 "Ruler of disease it called Sovereign, aid to Sovereign it called Minister, comply with Minister it called Envoy (Assistant), not upper lower three classes (qualities) it called." The last part is interpreted as stating that these three rulers are not the three classes of Shénnóng mentioned previously. This chapter in particular outlines a more forceful approach. Later on Zhang Zihe [張子和 Zhāng Zĭ-hé, aka Zhang Cong-zhen] (1156-1228) is credited with founding the 'Attacking School' which criticized the overuse of tonics. Arguably the most important of these later works is the Compendium of Materia Medica (Bencao Gangmu:本草綱目) compiled during the Ming dynasty by Li Shizhen, which is still used today for consultation and reference. The use of Chinese herbs was popular during the medieval age in western Asian and Islamic countries. They were traded through the Silk Road from the East to the West. Cinnamon, ginger, rhubarb, nutmeg and cubeb are mentioned as Chinese herbs by medieval Islamic medical scholars Such as Rhazes (854– 925 CE), Haly Abbas (930-994 CE) and Avicenna (980-1037 CE). There were also similarities between the clinical uses of these herbs in Chinese and Islamic medicine.[12] Raw materials There are roughly 13,000 medicinals used in China and over 100,000 medicinal recipes recorded in the ancient literature.[13] Plant elements and extracts are by far the most common elements used.[14] In the classic Handbook of Traditional Drugs from 1941, 517 drugs were listed – out of these, only 45 were animal parts, and 30 were minerals.[14] For many plants used as medicinals, detailed instructions have been handed down not only regarding the locations and areas where they grow best, but also regarding the best timing of planting and harvesting them.[15] Some animal parts used as medicinals are little-known to Westerners, such as cows' gallstones.[16] The classic materia medica Bencao Gangmu describes the use of 35 traditional Chinese medicines derived from the human body, including bones, fingernail, hairs, dandruff, earwax, impurities on the teeth, feces, urine, sweat, and organs, but most are no longer in use.[17][18][19] Preparation Decoction Typically, one batch of medicinals is prepared as a decoction of about 9 to 18 substances.[20] Some of these are considered as main herbs, some as ancillary herbs; within the ancillary herbs, up to three categories can be distinguished.[21] Some ingredients are added in order to cancel out toxicity or side-effects of the main ingredients; on top of that, some medicinals require the use of other substances as catalysts. Chinese patent medicine Main article: Chinese patent medicine Chinese patent medicine (traditional Chinese: 中成藥, Simplified Chinese: 中成药, pinyin: zhōngchéng yào) is a kind of traditional Chinese medicine. They are standardized herbal formulas. From ancient times, pills were formed by combining several herbs and other ingredients, which were dried and ground into a powder. They were then mixed with a binder and formed into pills by hand. The binder was traditionally honey. Modern teapills, however, are extracted in stainless steel extractors to create either a water decoction or water-alcohol decoction, depending on the herbs used. They are extracted at a low temperature (below 100 degrees Celsius) to preserve essential ingredients. The extracted liquid is then further condensed, and some raw herb powder from one of the herbal ingredients is mixed in to form an herbal dough. This dough is then machine cut into tiny pieces, a small amount of excipients are added for a smooth and consistent exterior, and they are spun into pills.[citation needed] These medicines are not patented in the traditional sense of the word. No one has exclusive rights to the formula. Instead, "patent" refers to the standardization of the formula. In China, all Chinese patent medicines of the same name will have the same proportions of ingredients, and manufactured in accordance with the PRC Pharmacopoeia, which is mandated by law. However, in western countries there may be variations in the proportions of ingredients in patent medicines of the same name, and even different ingredients altogether.[citation needed] Several producers of Chinese herbal medicines are pursuing FDA clinical trials to market their products as drugs in U.S. and European markets.[22] Chinese herbal extracts Chinese herbal extracts are herbal decoctions that have been condensed into a granular or powdered form. Herbal extracts, similar to patent medicines, are easier and more convenient for patients to take. The industry extraction standard is 5:1, meaning for every five pounds of raw materials, one pound of herbal extract is derived.[23][better source needed] Categorization There are several different methods to classify traditional Chinese medicinals: The Four Natures (simplified Chinese: 四气; traditional Chinese: 四氣; pinyin: sìqì) The Five Flavors (Chinese: 五味; pinyin: wǔwèi) The meridians (simplified Chinese: 经络; traditional Chinese: 經絡; pinyin: jīngluò) The specific function. Four Natures The Four Natures are: hot (热), warm (温), cool (凉), cold (寒) or neutral (平), in terms of temperature.[24] Hot and warm herbs are used to treat cold diseases, while cool and cold herbs are used to treat heat diseases.[24] Five Flavors     The Five Phases, which correspond to the Five Flavors The Five Flavors, sometimes also translated as Five Tastes, are: acrid/pungent (辛), sweet (甘), bitter (苦), sour (酸), and salty (咸).[24] Substances may also have more than one flavor, or none (i.e., a bland (淡) flavor).[24] Each of the Five Flavors corresponds to one of the zàng organs, which in turn corresponds to one of the Five Phases:[25] A flavor implies certain properties and presumed therapeutic actions of a substance: saltiness "drains downward and softens hard masses";[24] sweetness is "supplementing, harmonizing, and moistening";[24] pungent substances are thought to induce sweat and act on qi and blood; sourness tends to be astringent (涩) in nature; bitterness "drains heat, purges the bowels, and eliminates dampness". Specific function These categories mainly include: exterior-releasing[26] or exterior-resolving[27] heat-clearing[26][27] downward-draining[26] or precipitating[27] wind-damp-dispelling[26][27] dampness-transforming[26][27] promoting the movement of water and percolating dampness[26] or dampness-percolating[27] interior-warming[26][27] qi-regulating[26] or qi-rectifying[27] dispersing food accumulation[26] or food-dispersing[27] worm-expelling[26][27] stopping bleeding[26] or blood-stanching[27] quickening the Blood and dispelling stasis[26] or blood-quickening[27] or Blood-moving.[28] transforming phlegm, stopping coughing and calming wheezing[26] or phlegm-transforming and cough- and panting-suppressing[27] Spirit-quieting[26][27] or Shen-calming.[28] calming the Liver and expelling wind[26] or Liver-calming and wind-extinguishing[27] orifice-opening[26][27] supplementing[26][27] or tonifying:[28] this includes qi-supplementing, blood-nourishing, yin-enriching, and yang-fortifying.[27] astriction-promoting[26] or securing and astringing[27] vomiting-inducing[26] substances for external application[26][27] Nomenclature Many herbs earn their names from their unique physical appearance. Examples of such names include Niu Xi (Radix cyathulae seu achyranthis), "cow's knees," which has big joints that might look like cow knees; Bai Mu Er (Fructificatio tremellae fuciformis), white wood ear,' which is white and resembles an ear; Gou Ji (Rhizoma cibotii), 'dog spine,' which resembles the spine of a dog.[29] Color Color is not only a valuable means of identifying herbs, but in many cases also provides information about the therapeutic attributes of the herb. For example, yellow herbs are referred to as huang (yellow) or jin (gold). Huang Bai (Cortex Phellodendri) means 'yellow fir," and Jin Yin Hua (Flos Lonicerae) has the label 'golden silver flower."[29] Smell and taste Unique flavors define specific names for some substances. Gan means 'sweet,' so Gan Cao (Radix glycyrrhizae) is 'sweet herb," an adequate description for the licorice root. "Ku" means bitter, thus Ku Shen (Sophorae flavescentis) translates as 'bitter herb.'[29] Geographic location The locations or provinces in which herbs are grown often figure into herb names. For example, Bei Sha Shen (Radix glehniae) is grown and harvested in northern China, whereas Nan Sha Shen (Radix adenophorae) originated in southern China. And the Chinese words for north and south are respectively bei and nan.[29] Chuan Bei Mu (Bulbus fritillariae cirrhosae) and Chuan Niu Xi (Radix cyathulae) are both found in Sichuan province, as the character "chuan" indicates in their names.[29] Function Some herbs, like Fang Feng (Radix Saposhnikoviae), literally 'prevent wind," prevents or treats wind-related illnesses. Xu Duan (Radix Dipsaci), literally 'restore the broken,' effectively treats torn soft tissues and broken bones.[29] Country of origin Many herbs indigenous to other countries have been incorporated into the Chinese materia medica. Xi Yang Shen (Radix panacis quinquefolii), imported from North American crops, translates as 'western ginseng," while Dong Yang Shen (Radix ginseng Japonica), grown in and imported from North Asian countries, is 'eastern ginseng.' Similar examples are noted in the text whenever geography matters in herb selection.[29] Toxicity From the earliest records regarding the use of medicinals to today, the toxicity of certain substances has been described in all Chinese materia medica.[30] Since TCM has become more popular in the Western world, there are increasing concerns about the potential toxicity of many traditional Chinese medicinals including plants, animal parts and minerals.[5] For most medicinals, efficacy and toxicity testing are based on traditional knowledge rather than laboratory analysis.[5] The toxicity in some cases could be confirmed by modern research (i.e., in scorpion); in some cases it could not (i.e., in Curculigo).[31] Further, ingredients may have different names in different locales or in historical texts, and different preparations may have similar names for the same reason, which can create inconsistencies and confusion in the creation of medicinals,[32] with the possible danger of poisoning.[33][34][35] Edzard Ernst "concluded that adverse effects of herbal medicines are an important albeit neglected subject in dermatology, which deserves further systematic investigation."[36] Research suggests that the toxic heavy metals and undeclared drugs found in Chinese herbal medicines might be a serious health issue.[37] Like Western medications and herbology from all cultures, Chinese herbology may have some side effects, and can potentially be toxic if used incorrectly, in large amounts, or in combination with other herbs or medicines. Substances which may have potential side effects include aconite,[31] secretions from the Asiatic toad,[38] powdered centipede,[39] the Chinese beetle (Mylabris phalerata, Ban mao),[40] and certain fungi.[41] There are health problems associated with Aristolochia.[5] Toxic effects may also exist with Aconitum.[5] To avoid its toxic adverse effects Xanthium sibiricum must be processed.[5] Hepatotoxicity has been reported with products containing Reynoutria multiflora (synonym Polygonum multiflorum), glycyrrhizin, Senecio and Symphytum.[5] The evidence suggests that hepatotoxic herbs also include Dictamnus dasycarpus, Astragalus membranaceous, and Paeonia lactiflora; although there is no evidence that they cause liver damage.[5] Contrary to popular belief, Ganoderma lucidum mushroom extract, as an adjuvant for cancer immunotherapy, appears to have the potential for toxicity.[42] Also, adulteration of some herbal medicine preparations with conventional drugs which may cause serious adverse effects, such as corticosteroids, phenylbutazone, phenytoin, and glibenclamide, has been reported.[43][44] A 2013 review suggested that although the antimalarial herb Artemisia annua may not cause hepatotoxicity, haematotoxicity, or hyperlipidemia, it should be used cautiously during pregnancy due to a potential risk of embryotoxicity at a high dose.[45] However, many adverse reactions are due to misuse of Chinese medicine.[5] For example, the misuse of the dietary supplement Ephedra (containing ephedrine) can lead to adverse events including gastrointestinal problems as well as sudden death from cardiomyopathy.[5] Products adulterated with pharmaceuticals for weight loss or erectile dysfunction are one of the main concerns.[5] Chinese herbal medicine has been a major cause of acute liver failure in China.[46] Most Chinese herbs are safe, but some may have adverse effects if used improperly, or when combined with other herbs or medications. Reports have shown products being contaminated with drugs, toxins, or false reporting of ingredients. Some herbs used in TCM may also react with drugs, have side effects, or be dangerous to people with certain medical conditions. However, many Western medications react with other Western medications. Also, there are many questionable remedies in the US and West as well. [47] Efficacy Further information: Traditional Chinese medicine § Efficacy, and Drug research Regarding Traditional Chinese herbal therapy, only few trials exist that are considered to be of adequate methodology by scientific standards, which indicate that proof of effectiveness is poorly documented or absent. However, this doesn't mean TCM is ineffective - it just means there have been too few trials conducted that meet Western standards due to researchers being uninterested in studying TCM. [3] A 2008 Cochrane review found promising evidence for the use of Chinese herbal medicine in relieving painful menstruation, compared to conventional medicine such as NSAIDs and the oral contraceptive pill, but the findings may not be of the most stringent methodological quality - like many studies, whether of Western medicine or herbology from around the world.[48] A 2012 Cochrane review found evidence suggesting that some Chinese medicinal herbs have a similar effect at preventing and treating influenza when compared to antiviral medication.[49] Due to the poor quality of these medical studies, there is insufficient evidence to support or dismiss the use of Chinese medicinal herbs for the treatment of influenza.[49] There is a need for larger and higher quality randomized clinical trials to determine how effective Chinese herbal medicine is for treating people with influenza.[49] A 2005 Cochrane review found that although the evidence was weak for the use of any single herb, there was low quality evidence that some Chinese medicinal herbs may be effective for the treatment of acute pancreatitis.[50] Pei Pa Koa is a commonly used, delicious, and effective syrup used for coughs, colds, and sore throats. It can be found in Chinese and Asian grocery stores in the US. [51] Ecological impacts   Dried seahorses like these are extensively used in traditional medicine in China and elsewhere. The traditional practice of using (by now) endangered species is controversial within TCM. Modern Materia Medicas such as Bensky, Clavey and Stoger's comprehensive Chinese herbal text discuss substances derived from endangered species in an appendix, emphasizing alternatives.[52] Parts of endangered species used as TCM drugs include tiger bones[53] and rhinoceros horn.[54] Poachers supply the black market with such substances,[55][56] and the black market in rhinoceros horn, for example, has reduced the world's rhino population by more than 90 percent over the past 40 years.[57] Concerns have also arisen over the use of turtle plastron[58] and seahorses.[59] TCM recognizes bear bile as a medicinal. In 1988, the Chinese Ministry of Health started controlling bile production, which previously used bears killed before winter. Now bears are fitted with a sort of permanent catheter, which is more profitable than killing the bears.[60] More than 12,000 asiatic black bears are held in "bear farms", where they suffer cruel conditions while being held in tiny cages. The catheter leads through a permanent hole in the abdomen directly to the gall bladder, which can cause severe pain. Increased international attention has mostly stopped the use of bile outside of China; gallbladders from butchered cattle (niú dǎn / 牛膽 / 牛胆) are recommended as a substitute for this ingredient.[citation needed] Collecting American ginseng to assist the Asian traditional medicine trade has made ginseng the most harvested wild plant in North America for the last two centuries, which eventually led to a listing on CITES Appendix II.[61] Herbs in use See also: List of medicines in traditional Chinese medicine There are regulatory bodies, such as China GMP (Good Manufacturing Process) of herbal products.[62] There are over 300 herbs in common use. Some of the most commonly used herbs are Ginseng (人参/人參, rénshēn), wolfberry (枸杞子), dong quai (Angelica sinensis, 当归/當歸, dāngguī), astragalus (黄耆/黃耆, huángqí), atractylodes (白术/白朮, báizhú), bupleurum (柴胡, cháihú), cinnamon (cinnamon twigs (桂枝, guìzhī) and cinnamon bark (肉桂, ròuguì)), coptis (黄连/黃連, huánglián), ginger (姜/薑, jiāng), hoelen (茯苓, fúlíng), licorice (甘草, gāncǎo), ephedra sinica (麻黄/麻黃, máhuáng), peony (white: 白芍, báisháo and reddish: 赤芍, chìsháo), rehmannia (地黄/地黃, dìhuáng), rhubarb (大黄/大黃, dàhuáng), and salvia (丹参/丹參, dānshēn). Chinese ginseng   Chinese red ginseng roots See: Panax notoginseng The use of Chinese ginseng (人参) is well over 2,000 years old in Chinese medicine. The constituents include steroid saponins known as ginsenosides,[63] The amount of ginsenosides in Chinese ginseng depends on how the plant was cultivated and the age of the root.[63] Wild Chinese ginseng, believed to be of highest TCM quality, has become rare in its natural habitat, so natural fostering efforts are utilized to emulate the wild variety.[64] Chinese ginseng can be white or red, depending on how it is processed.[65] White Chinese ginseng is unprocessed and dried naturally.[65] Red Chinese ginseng is processed with steam and, in TCM, is believed to be more potent.[65] TCM Lore: Properties: Sweet, Bitter, Warm.[65] Channels: Lung, Spleen, Heart.[65] American ginseng See: Panax quinquefolius Wild American ginseng populations are thought to be less abundant than they were in the 18th and early 19th centuries, due to habitat loss, harvest pressures and excessive deer browse.[66] Current American ginseng products are commonly sourced from naturally fostered varieties, to emulate the wild variety.[66] TCM Lore: Properties: Sweet, Slightly Bitter, Cold.[65] Channels: Heart, Kidney, Lung.[65] Siberian ginseng See: Eleutherococcus senticosus TCM Lore: Properties: Pungent, Acrid, Slightly Bitter, Warm.[65] Channels: Spleen, Heart, Kidney.[65] Ginkgo Mushrooms Main article: Medicinal mushrooms Mushrooms have long been used as a medicinal food and as a tea in Chinese herbology. Wolfberry Wolfberry (枸杞子) is grown in Ningxia from shrubs with long vines. The shrubs are covered with small trumpet-shaped flowers, which turn into small, bright red berries. The berries are usually consumed fresh and sometimes when dried.[67] TCM Information: Species: Lycium barbarum. Pinyin: Gou Qi Zi. (枸杞子) Common Name: Chinese Wolfberry. Quality: Sweet, Neutral. Meridians: Liver, Lung, Kidney.[68][69][70] Dang Gui Dang Gui (当归, Angelica sinensis or "female ginseng") is an aromatic herb that grows in China, Korea, and Japan.[citation needed] TCM Information: Species: Angelica sinensis. Pinyin: Dang Gui. Common Name: Chinese Angelica Root. Quality: Sweet, Pungent (Acrid), Warm. Meridians: Liver, Heart, Spleen. Astragalus Astragalus (黄芪) is a root. TCM Information: Species: Astragalus membranaceus. Pinyin: Huang Qi. Common Name: Astragalus Root, Milkvetch Root. Quality: Sweet, Slightly warm. Meridians: Lung, Spleen. Atractylodes TCM Information: Species: Atractylodes lancea. Pinyin: Cang Zhu. (苍术) Common Name: Atractylodes Rhizome. Quality: Pungent (Acrid), Bitter, Warm. Meridians: Spleen, Stomach. Bupleurum TCM Information: Species: Bupleurum chinense. Pinyin: Chai Hu. (柴胡) Common Name: Hare's Ear Root. Quality: Bitter, Pungent (Acrid), Cool. Meridians: Gallbladder, Liver, Pericardium, San Jiao. Cinnamon Cinnamon (桂枝, 肉桂), mostly gui zhi and rou gui, is the twigs and bark from a species of large tropical tree.[citation needed] TCM Information: Species: Cinnamomum cassia. Pinyin: Gui Zhi. （桂枝） Common Name: Cinnamon Twig. Quality: Pungent (Acrid), Sweet, Warm. Meridians: Heart, Lung, Bladder. Species: Cinnamomum cassia. Pinyin: Rou Gui. (肉桂) Common Name: Cinnamon Bark. Quality: Pungent (Acrid), Sweet, Hot. Meridians: Heart, Kidney, Liver, Spleen. Coptis chinensis The rhizome of Coptis chinensis is one of the bitterest herbs used in Chinese medicine.[citation needed] TCM Information: Species: Coptis chinensis. Pinyin: Huang Lian. (黄连) Common Name: Coptis Rhizome. Qualities: Bitter, Cold. Meridians: Heart, Large Intestine, Liver, Stomach. Ginger   Ginger is consumed in China as food and as medicine. Ginger (薑) is a herb and a spice that is used in Chinese cuisine. There are four main kinds of preparations in Chinese herbology: fresh ginger, dried ginger, roasted ginger, and ginger charcoal, all made of the rhizomes. TCM Information: Species: Zingiber officinalis. Pinyin: Sheng Jiang (生薑). Common Name: Fresh Ginger Rhizome. Quality: Pungent (Acrid), Slightly warm. Meridians: Lung, Spleen, Stomach. Species: Zingiber officinalis. Pinyin: Gan Jiang (乾薑). Common Name: Dried Ginger Rhizome. Quality: Pungent (Acrid), Hot. Meridians: Heart, Lung, Spleen, Stomach. Licorice TCM Information: Species: Glycyrrhiza inflata or Glycyrrhiza glabra. Pinyin: Gan Cao. (甘草) Common Name: Licorice Root. Quality: Sweet, Neutral. Meridians: All 12 channels, but mainly Heart, Lung, Spleen, Stomach. Ephedra TCM Information: Species: Ephedra sinica or Ephedra intermedia. Pinyin: Ma Huang. (麻黄) Common Name: Ephedra Stem. Quality: Pungent (Acrid), Slightly Bitter, Warm. Meridians: Lung, Bladder. Peony Peony comes in two varieties: bai shao (“bai”=white) and chi shao (“chi”=red). the root of the plant is used in both varieties.[citation needed] TCM Information: Species: Paeonia lactiflora. Pinyin: Bai Shao. (白芍) Common Name: White Peony Root. Quality: Bitter, Sour, Cool. Meridians: Liver, Spleen. Species: Paeonia lactiflora or Paeonia veitchii. Pinyin: Chi Shao. (赤芍) Common Name: Red Peony Root. Quality: Sour, Bitter, Cool. Meridians: Liver, Spleen. Rehmannia Rehmannia (地黄) is a root where the dark, moist part of the herb is used.[citation needed] TCM Information: Species: Rehmannia glutinosa. Pinyin: Sheng Di Huang. (生地黄) Common Name: Raw Chinese Foxglove Root. Qualities: Sweet, Bitter, Cold. Meridians: Heart, Kidney, Liver. Species: Rehmannia glutinosa. Pinyin: Shu Di Huang. (熟地黄) Common Name: Chinese Foxglove Root Prepared with Wine. Qualities: Sweet, Slightly warm. Meridians: Heart, Kidney, Liver. Rhubarb   Chinese rhubarb depicted by Michał Boym (1655) Rhubarb (大黄), used medicinally for its root, was one of the first herbs to be exported from China.[71] TCM Information: Species: Rheum palmatum, Rheum ranguticum, or Rheum officinale. Pinyin: Da Huang. Common Name: Rhubarb Root and Rhizome. Quality: Bitter, Cold. Meridians: Heart, Large Intestine, Liver, Stomach. Salvia Salvia (丹参) are the deep roots of the Chinese sage plant.[citation needed] TCM Information: Species: Salvia miltiorrhiza. Pinyin: Dan Shen. Common Name: Salvia Root. Qualities: Bitter, Cool. Meridians: Heart, Pericardium, Liver. 50 fundamental herbs In Chinese herbology, there are 50 fundamental herbs, as given in the reference text,[72] although these herbs are not universally recognized as such in other texts. The herbs are: Binomial nomenclature Chinese name English common name (when available) Agastache rugosa, Pogostemon cablin[73] huò xiāng (藿 香)[74] Korean mint, Patchouli Alangium chinense[75] bā jiǎo fēng (八 角 枫)[76] Chinese Alangium root Anemone chinensis (syn. Pulsatilla chinensis)[77] bái tóu weng (白 头 翁)[76][77] Chinese anemone Anisodus tanguticus shān làng dàng (山 莨 菪)[78]   Ardisia japonica zǐ jīn niú (紫 金 牛)[79] Marlberry Aster tataricus zǐ wǎn (紫 菀) Tatar aster, Tartar aster Astragalus propinquus (syn. Astragalus membranaceus)[80] huáng qí (黄 芪)[81] or běi qí (北 芪)[81] Mongolian milkvetch Camellia sinensis chá shù (茶 树) or chá yè (茶 叶) Tea plant Cannabis sativa dà má (大 麻) Cannabis Carthamus tinctorius hóng huā (红 花) Safflower Cinnamomum cassia ròu gùi (肉 桂) Cassia, Chinese cinnamon Cissampelos pareira xí shēng téng (锡 生 藤) or (亞 乎 奴) Velvet leaf Coptis chinensis duǎn è huáng lián (短 萼 黄 连) Chinese goldthread Corydalis yanhusuo yán hú suǒ (延 胡 索) Chinese poppy of Yan Hu Sou Croton tiglium bā dòu (巴 豆) Purging croton Daphne genkwa yuán huā (芫 花) Lilac daphne Datura metel yáng jīn huā (洋 金 花) Devil's trumpet Datura stramonium[82] zǐ huā màn tuó luó (紫 花 曼 陀 萝) Jimson weed Dendrobium nobile shí hú (石 斛) or shí hú lán (石 斛 兰) Noble dendrobium Dichroa febrifuga[83] cháng shān (常 山) Blue evergreen hydrangea, Chinese quinine Ephedra sinica cǎo má huáng (草 麻 黄) Chinese ephedra Eucommia ulmoides dù zhòng (杜 仲) Hardy rubber tree Euphorbia pekinensis[84] dà jǐ (大 戟) Peking spurge Flueggea suffruticosa (formerly Securinega suffruticosa) yī yè qiū (一 叶 秋)[85]   Forsythia suspensa liánqiáo[86] (连 翘) Weeping forsythia Gentiana loureiroi dì dīng (地 丁)   Gleditsia sinensis zào jiá (皂 荚) Chinese honeylocust Glycyrrhiza uralensis gān cǎo (甘 草)[87] Licorice Hydnocarpus anthelminticus (syn. H. anthelminthica) dà fēng zǐ (大 风 子) Chaulmoogra tree Ilex purpurea dōngqīng (冬 青) Purple holly Leonurus japonicus yì mǔ cǎo (益 母 草) Chinese motherwort Ligusticum wallichii[88] chuān xiōng (川 芎) Szechwan lovage Lobelia chinensis bàn biān lián (半 边 莲) Creeping lobelia Phellodendron amurense huáng bǎi (黄 柏) Amur cork tree Platycladus orientalis (formerly Thuja orientalis) cè bǎi (侧 柏) Chinese arborvitae Pseudolarix amabilis jīn qián sōng (金 钱 松) Golden larch Psilopeganum sinense shān má huáng (山 麻 黄) Naked rue Pueraria lobata gé gēn (葛 根) Kudzu Rauwolfia serpentina shégēnmù (蛇 根 木), cóng shégēnmù (從 蛇 根 木) or yìndù shé mù (印 度 蛇 木) Sarpagandha, Indian snakeroot Rehmannia glutinosa dìhuáng (地 黄)[89] Chinese foxglove Rheum officinale yào yòng dà huáng (药 用 大 黄) Chinese or Eastern rhubarb Rhododendron qinghaiense Qīng hǎi dù juān (青 海 杜 鹃)   Saussurea costus yún mù xiāng (云 木 香) Costus root Schisandra chinensis wǔ wèi zi (五 味 子) Chinese magnolia vine Scutellaria baicalensis huáng qín (黄 芩) Baikal skullcap Stemona tuberosa bǎi bù (百 部)   Stephania tetrandra fáng jǐ (防 己) Stephania root Styphnolobium japonicum (formerly Sophora japonica) huái (槐), huái shù (槐 树), or huái huā (槐 花) Pagoda tree Trichosanthes kirilowii guā lóu (栝 楼) Chinese cucumber Wikstroemia indica liāo gē wáng (了 哥 王) Indian stringbush Other Chinese herbs In addition to the above, many other Chinese herbs and other substances are in common use, and these include: Akebia quinata (木通) Arisaema heterophyllum[90][91] (胆南星) Arsenic trioxide (砒霜) Arsenolite (砒石) Aspongopus (九香虫) Asteriscus pseudosciaenae (鱼脑石) Benzoinum (安息香) Bombyx batryticatus (僵蚕) Bulbus fritillariae cirrhosae (川贝母) Bulbus fritillariae hupehensis (湖北贝母) Bulbus fritillariae pallidiflorae (伊贝母) Bulbus fritillariae thunbergii (浙贝母) Bulbus fritillariae ussuriensis (平贝母) Bulbus lycoridis radiatae (石蒜) Cacumen securinegae suffruticosae (叶底珠) Cacumen tamaricis (西河柳) Calamine (炉甘石) Calculus bovis (牛黄) Calculus equi (马宝) Calomelas (轻粉) Calyx seu fructus physalis (锦灯笼) Caulis ampelopsis brevipedunculae (山葡萄) Caulis aristolochiae manshuriensis (关木通) Caulis bambusae in taeniam (竹茹) Caulis clematidis armandii (川木通) Caulis entadae (过江龙) Caulis erycibes (丁公藤) Caulis et folium piperis hancei (山蒟) Caulis et folium schefflerae arboricolae (七叶莲) Caulis euphorbiae antiquori (火殃勒) Caulis fibraureae (黄藤) Caulis gneti (买麻藤) Caulis hederae sinensis (常春藤) Caulis impatientis (透骨草) Caulis lonicerae (忍冬藤) Caulis mahoniae (功劳木) Caulis perillae (紫苏梗) Caulis piperis kadsurae (海风藤) Caulis polygoni multiflori (首乌藤) Caulis sargentodoxae (大血藤) Caulis sinomenii (青风藤) Caulis spatholobi (鸡血藤) Caulis tinosporae (宽根藤) Caulis trachelospermi (络石藤) Cera chinensis (虫白蜡) Chenpi (sun-dried tangerine (mandarin) peel) (陳皮) Cinnabaris (朱砂) Clematis (威灵仙) Colla corii asini (阿胶) Concha arcae (瓦楞子) Concha haliotidis (石决明) Concha margaritifera usta (珍珠母) Concha mauritiae arabicae (紫贝齿) Concha meretricis seu cyclinae (蛤壳) Concretio silicea bambusae (天竺黄) Cordyceps sinensis (冬虫夏草) Corium erinacei seu hemiechianus (刺猬皮) Cornu bubali (水牛角) Cornu cervi (鹿角) Cornu cervi degelatinatum (鹿角霜) Cornu cervi pantotrichum (鹿茸) Cornu saigae tataricae (羚羊角) Cortex acanthopanacis (五加皮) Cortex ailanthi (椿皮) Cortex albiziae (合欢皮) Cortex cinchonae (金鸡纳皮) Cortex dictamni (白鲜皮) Curcuma (郁金) Dalbergia odorifera (降香) Hirudo medicinalis (水蛭) Myrrh (没药) Olibanum (乳香) Persicaria (桃仁) "Pogostemon cablin" (广藿香) Polygonum (虎杖) Sparganium (三棱) Zedoary (Curcuma zedoaria) (莪朮)   References Unschuld Paul U., Medicine in China: A History of Pharmaceutics, University of California Press, Berkeley, CA. 1986 Nigel Wiseman; Ye Feng (2002-08-01). 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